Physics and Astronomy, University of Kent
In this lecture, we will focus on some deeper aspects of special relativity, studying the breakdown in our ideas of absolute simultaneity, and the idea of the spacetime interval, a quantity which can be considered absolute in the sense that it does not change under a Lorentz transformation.
The ladder ‘paradox’ is a classic situation in special relativity. If you understand the ladder paradox you are a good way to understanding the key ideas of the theory.
A farmer is standing next to his shed. He would like to put his the
ladder inside the shed, but he has a problem. The shed is 2 m in length
while the ladder is 4 m long. Luckily, he has studied PH304, and he has
an idea. He realises that if he moves the ladder at a velocity of
Of course, it won’t be in the shed for very long before it crashes
through the other side. However, in a second stroke of luck, the shed
has two sets of doors, front and back. The ladder will enter the front
door, which he can then quickly close, momentarily trapping the ladder
inside. To prevent any damage to his shed doors, he will then
immediately open the back door, allowing the ladder to pass through and
carry on its way at
Leaving aside questions of how he accelerates the ladder, or opens and closes the doors so fast, does this work?
From the rest frame of the shed, it looks like it will indeed work. The difficulty comes when we consider things from the rest frame of the ladder. From the ladder’s point of view it is the shed that it is moving, and so length contracted by a factor of 2. So now the shed is only 1 m in length, while the ladder maintains its length of 4 m in its rest frame. So in the rest frame of the ladder, things are even worse than they were to start with!
How is this paradox resolved? The answer is that the closing of the front and back doors of the shed are events separated in space. This means that while they are simultaneous for the farmer/shed, the are not simultaneous for the ladder. The ladder will see the back door open before the front door closes, and so it will never be entirely within the shed.
There is a problem on Worksheet 2 in which you will work through this in more detail.
The twin paradox is less illustrative of the principles of special relativity, but is nevertheless important for other reasons. It is illustrated in Figure 1.
An astronaut sets out from Earth at a speed
From the point of view of the twin on Earth, the astronaut has been
moving, and so time should have been running slower for the astronaut;
while the astronaut measures a time
But now let’s look at it from the point of view of the astronaut. In her rest frame, she says that it is actually the Earth that moves away and then comes back. So from her point of view, everything is reversed, and she says that it will be the twin who stayed on Earth who will be the younger.
Clearly both can’t be correct; when they stand next to each other an compare their clocks, they cannot both be the slow ones. So what has happened?
To find the answer we return to the first postulate, which says that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames. But the astronaut was not in an inertial frame, she would have felt the acceleration as she left Earth, the deceleration at the mid-way point and acceleration back towards Earth and then a final deceleration as she arrived.
In principle we can ignore the accelerations at Earth - we could always synchronise clocks in a flypast. But there is no way to avoid the acceleration at the mid-way point. One way of thinking about it is that, at the time she turned around, the astronaut jumped between two different inertial frames travelling in opposite directions.
So who is correct? The answer is the twin who stayed on Earth. Since she stayed in an inertial frame at all times, it is perfectly valid for her to calculate everything using the Lorentz transformations. For the astronaut, it is not.
This goes to the heart of the matter of symmetry in special
relativity. Two observers moving relative to each other both say that
the other’s clock is running slow. This is not a paradox, because the
clocks are spatially separated at all times (except for time
We can represent objects in space and time by a diagram called a
spacetime diagram, shown in Figure 2. Since there are three spatial
dimensions (x,y,z) plus time, a true spacetime diagram would need to be
four dimensional! However, since we are normally only interested in the
position along the axis of motion, which we label as
Individual events can be plotted, and the path an object takes
through a spacetime diagram is called its worldline.
Notice a couple of things. Firstly, we plot
It is clear from the Lorentz transform for time:
that time is measured differently for observers moving in different inertial frames. A consequence of this, which may not be immediately apparent, is that two events which are separated in space, and which one observer considers to occur at the same time (i.e. they are simultaneous), will not be simultaneous in a different inertial frame. Indeed, in some circumstances it may even be that the two observers do not even agree on the ordering of the events. It is often the failure to fully appreciate the breakdown of absolute simultaneity which can leads to difficulties in our understanding and apparent ‘paradoxes’.
Consider two events occurring, events 1 and 2. They occur at two
positions along the x-axis,
Now consider a second reference frame,
We speak about a quantity being Lorentz Invariant if it does not change when we switch between reference frames. Note that this is a very different concept from a conserved quantity (such as momentum) which doesn’t change in time.
Clearly
An analogy which may be useful is to think of the points on a
circumference of a circle. As we move around the circle, which we can
think of as a rotation, our x and y co-ordinates change. However, the
radius of the circle (our distance from the centre) is invariant, given
simply by
There is something similar we can calculate for space and time under
Lorentz transformations. While space and time (
This looks a little similar to our circle invariant, although with
some obvious differences. In particular, we notice that it is
Whether the right-hand-side is positive or negative (or 0) has a very
important physical meaning. First lets consider the very special case of
If the distance travelled is
If two events are separated by
If two events are separated by
A nice way to visualise spacelike and timelike spacetime distance is
using our spacetime diagrams. If we place an observer at the origin and
draw lines for